Women and Education
Afsaneh Varastehfar

Women and Economy
Azam Khatam

Women and Violence
Shahla Ezazi

Women in Power and Decision Making
Soheila Tahmasebifar

Human Rights of Women
Sarvenaz Vafa

GIRL –CHILD
Ziba Jalali Naeni

Women and Poverty
Nahid Motie


Women’s poverty and the trend of poverty becoming more associated with women has become a global issue. In many countries indicators and mechanisms have been created over time, to evaluate and combat poverty. Applying the definition of family to evaluate and define poverty in Iran has made access to resources ( food, housing, clothing etc.) by family members ( according to gender and age) and it’s control inconsistent. Since the basis of this information relies on the gender of the head of household, usually the derived statistics are not reliable. Many women heads of household, owing to various reasons such as the immigration or imprisonment of their husbands, disability and even marital status, (divorced) do not declare themselves as heads of household. On the other hand, due to traditional and cultural issues they are not deemed as heads of household (Iran Center for Statistics, 1381, Poverty in Iran 1379). Consequently, the main changeable factors in this report i.e. poor women are undefined and unrecognized in local literature. We are therefore, obliged to proceed with the existing statistical indicators, in other words we must base our report on the situation of women heads of household, which is comparable to the situation of men heads of household. Additionally, based on the global definition of poor women, this report endeavors to pay attention to other hypothetical groups in local statistics, such as women refugees, elderly women and rural women.

General definition of poor women in Iran

There is a possibility that the families with women heads of household have been understated in number, bearing in mind the statistical definition of this phrase and the dominant patriarchal culture.

• 9.4% women head families in Iran.
  
• The number of dependants in families headed by women is fewer than families headed men.
  
• The majority of families headed by women consist of one member, who has been widowed at the age of 65 and over.
  
• 22.5% Women heads of households out of the entire number, (9.4%) are employed, which is more than the women’s share of the work force.
  
• The majority of urban women heads of households are employed in service industries, whereas in rural areas these women mainly consist of simple agricultural workers.
  
• 90% of elderly men have spouses whereas this statistic for elderly women is 51%.
  
• The ratio of elderly women who have been widowed is almost 4.9% times more than elderly widowers.
  
• The majority of old families headed by women consist of one person.
  
• 3.3% of elderly women are considered to be economically active, whereas the same statistics for men is 61%.
  
• The rate of employment of the active elderly from an economic point of view, during the decade from 65-75 has increased noticeably regardless of gender. This increase can be seen in both rural and urban areas.
  
• Approximately 72.5% of elderly men have retirement benefits or income not related to employment, these statistics regarding women is approximately 27.5%.
  
• 97% elderly employers are men and only 3% are women.
  
• 84% of elderly women and 16% elderly men are unpaid family business workers.
  
• Over half of internal immigrants in this country are women, the majority of whom travel to large cities for education and employment purposes.
  
• 3.9% of all families consist of families with a handicapped member, 10.2% of which are headed by women.
  
• Over on half of these families have five or more members.
  

Poor women’s access to resources

• Only 22.5% of women heads of household are active in the formal sector.
  
• In Iran’s urban society 31.4% women heads of household are employed or have income unrelated to employment, 62.4% are housewives. This statistic in the rural societies is respectively 44.2% and 49.4%. In other words the majority of urban and rural women heads of household rely on financial support from other members of their families and do not have a stable income.
  
• Only 1% women heads of household possess retirement insurance or pension and 1/8th of them are dependent on charitable assistance.
  
• Inadequate pension of women heads of household has often resulted in their employment in the private and unofficial sectors.
  
• Rural women heads of household have the least monthly income.
  
• 2/3rds of families with women heads of household is allocated to housing and food, the same statistic in men heads of household is 1/4th.
  
• Iran’s rural communities are literally not covered by any social security. Health services in the rural areas is inadequate inefficient and of poor quality.
  
• The country’s handicapped are not entitled to any particular social security, excepting war veterans, who are mainly men. The plan of action the National Organization of Behzisti has not achieved it’s objectives the Third Development Plan on this matter.
  
• Women refugees are not able to enter the job market officially nor do they benefit from social security.
  
• Age related illnesses such as Parkinson, Alzheimer or general brain degenerative disorders are on the increase.
  
• The demographic decline in families and the of changing attitudes in inter-generation relations deteriorates care taking of the elderly, whereas their need for care is higher than ever. This issue affects old women more.
  
• With the increase in the age of head of household, the economical well-being of the family decreases. Considering the average age of women heads of household, these families are placed in the lowest income brackets.
  
• The literacy rate or levels of education of women’s heads of household is far lower than that of men. Therefore, women heads of household have far less access to higher income jobs.
  
• Although women heads of household have fewer dependents, at the same time they are placed in the lower income brackets. In other words women heads of household are placed in the last and one to last income brackets whereas the same does not apply to men.
  
• The economic report of Ministry of Planning and Budget in 1377 claims that as previous years, households who have lost their men heads of family for whatever reason, are very likely to fall into low income brackets.
  
• The portion allocated to living expenses such as clothing and health is far fewer among families with women heads of household than that of men.
  
  

Conclusion and challenges

Although the definition of family obscures women’s economic situation, applying the same limited and inadequate term, family, confirms that the burden of poverty rests on the shoulder of women. It can therefore be said that what can reduce levels of poverty and increase access to resources is firstly, the increased participation in official and high income employment and secondly, adequate and extensive social security coverage. In the first solution it must be said that the increased economic participation of women is not possible owing to the country’s present economic structure. As majority of women heads of household are not very educated nor very skilled, are older or have to care for their children they are therefore, not able to enter the highly paid official job market. The situation of women refugees and disabled is the same. Rural women are active in the farming sector, they are not, however, mentioned in national statistics as employed nor do they have control of their incomes. In the second case, if we were to accept that social security applies to individuals based on paying social security insurance, therefore unless an individual is officially employed, they can not be insured directly or independently.

Consequently, we witness that a large section of poor women are deprived of access to social security. Present information indicates that the existing social security system will not be effective in long term for the following reasons:

• A large number of dependents on a single insured individual is a common occurrence.
  
• The ratio of resources to consumers in social security system almost evened out in the years 54-79, it is estimated that it will continue to go lower in the coming years.
  
• This problem mostly effects the disabled, the elderly and women heads of household, who will be likely to suffer the most as result of inadequate resources in the system.
  
• The government presently owes considerable sums to the social security fund which it will not be able to pay in the near future.
  
• In addition to the Social Security Organization Behzisti Organization, which is also responsible for supporting women heads of household, families without heads and their children has not been able to achieve the Third Development Plan objectives financially.
  
• Despite the noticeable increase in funds of Committee Emad Khomeini and Tarhe Shahid Rajai they have not effectively been able to meet with basic needs of the urban and rural elderly and women heads of household.
  
  

Consequently, what can be derived from these pictures is in the event of continuing present situation, i.e. denial of official employment to women and more importantly inadequacies in the social security system the trend of poverty of women will continue to increase.

Women and Education
Afsaneh Varastehfar

Introduction:

The educational status of women is one of the most important indicators of development in any given society. All statistical data reflecting the educational situation of Iranian women in the last 20 years show an upward trend. The present article looks at the activities of women in this area and their control over and access to resources, and then delves into the core issues of the structure and the concept of women’s education in Iran.

1-Literacy and Women’s Participation Rate in Educational levels

In 1381, the total literacy rate of the country was 82.9% in Iran. 78.2% of the total population of women and 87.7% of men were literate. The difference in these rates increases in rural areas as such: 70.1% for women, and 82.2% for men. The gap widens even more in remote and deprived areas. But the numbers are better for primary education: 52.24% for boys, and 47.76% for girls, even though we are faced with dropping rates for girls in this category, again, in rural areas. What is important though, is the gradual increase in the number of girl students in the six-year primary period (from 47.1% in the 1375-76 school year to 47.7% in the 1380-81 period).

In the Junior-High level we have the following data: 54.5% boy students and 45.5% girl students. There is a significant drop for girls from the primary period and because of even lower numbers in tribal areas there is an urgent need for particular attention to these population groups. The share of women grows in high-school, and in the university prep year girls overtake boys.

From the 1375-76 school-year, the indicators for the educational levels and achievements of girls for the primary, middle (Junior) level, and high-school periods have been on constant rise. But at the same time, the important and troubling trend is the intense drop in the number of students both boys and girls- in the middle school years. In rural areas the number of students drops to half from the primary to the mid level, and from there to one-thirds in high-school.

However, what is most noticeable is the success of girls in test scores for all levels. In higher educational levels we are witnessing a growing number of women who take the entrance exams and are admitted to universities. But while women had a 60% share of admissions to colleges in 1380 their numbers dropped for Masters and Doctorate level programs against their male counterparts.

Educational Staff and books

Any survey of the majors and programs chosen by students would indicate that those in charge of planning national educational policies are responsible for perpetuating gender-based educational and occupational stereotypes. While women show great enthusiasm and drive for, and have been able to find entry into, areas previously only available to men, they are faced with arbitrary quotas denying them access to their chosen fields based on their gender.

Access of women to higher level jobs is also subject to such limitations. In the Ministry of Education, where women form the majority of the work-force, only 1.72 executive level positions are held by women.

In universities too we are faced with low levels of participation by women in teaching positions. As in the Education Ministry where women with 4-year degrees and higher number less than men, there are more female faculty members in assistant-professorships and lower-level teaching positions than their male colleagues.

Major Challenges

The organizational structure of the two ministries of Education and Higher Education, which are the principal responsible arms of the government in the field is male-oriented and a reflection of the dominant paternal culture in Iran. This is of course translated into unequal rights and lower wages, benefits, and influence for women as opposed to men. Also, models and outlooks provided for women in such circumstances are bound to allow them lesser and more limited opportunities.

This culture which is also fostered in the family environment sets the ground for girls leaving school in the junior level.Quitting school has bitter consequences for young women:

IN THE FAMILY SPHERE AND ON A PERSONAL LEVEL:

• Early Marriage; Unwanted Pregnancy; Ill Health.
  
• Perpetuation of this same culture of prejudice when forming a family, and strengthening the same paternalistic traditions.
  

ON A SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC LEVEL:

• Inability to attain professional expertise, and thus having to populate a secondary labor market, and in danger of falling into poverty.
  
• Lower participation in political and civic affairs. Even when involved in such matters, the involvement is limited to the more traditional areas (Charities, etc.).
  

Considering the issues described above, it seems that the most important problem to be taken into account and solved when setting national educational policies is the troubling number of girls leaving school in the mid-level years.

Women and Economy
Azam Khatam


INTRODUCTION

Although women constitute half the population of the country, according to official statistics they form only 11% of the work force. Durijng the years 1335 –1375 according to the same statistics women’s share of employment in the national work force has not changed much. Dependency per employee in Iran is four persons, which is much higher than similar indicators in other countries. Studies indicate that women’s access to economic resources, employment opportunities and cultural assets (skilled labor) is scarce and there are extreme inequalities between men and women in income, benefits, promotion opportunities and decision making.

Women’s unofficial employment could be one of the causes for the low statistics of women’s employment and the high burden of dependency per employee.

1. Women’s Economic Active Force in Iran

Based on statistical information on employment in 1381, the average employment rate of women over the age of ten is 11.8% vis-à-vis the 63% of male employment rate in the same age group. Entering of women in the job market depends on variants such as level of education, marriage status, number of children and their age. To such an extent that average economic participation of women with higher education is four times that of women with elementary education and 13 times that of illiterate women. It can also be assumed that marriage causes women to quit their jobs, so much so that , over twice the number of unmarried women are employed (19.5% as opposed to 9.5%). The women’s peek age for economic activity is 25-29 years (14.1%), this average is reduced slightly to 13% at 40-45 age, over the age of 45 starts a downhill trend and over the age of 60 is reduced to 4.5%. Taking into account the women’s average age for marriage in Iran ( 22.5 years in 1375).The reduction of women’s social and economic activity can be observed as result of additional domestic responsibility. The continuous trend of gender inequality in domestic responsibilities and the reluctance to transfer responsibility of taking care of children and the aged by admitting them to social institutions, doubles the domestic responsibility of employed women and is one of the main causes for women quitting the work force.

The average rate of women unemployed in 1381, is approximately 12.5% which is 50% more than average male unemployment figures, the average male unemployment figures in the same year has been 8.4%. It should noted that the rate of women seeking employment (who have not found a job) has been increased from 13.3% to 19.6% during 1375-1381, indicting that young girls entering the work force in the recent years have not been very successful.

2. Women in urban job market

According to official statistics in 1381 women only constitute 14% of the urban work force, whereas an important portion of urban women who as independent workers inside and outside the home are active in producing incomes have not been included in this statistics. The reason for an increase in self employment among urban women ,is more freedom of action and it’s compatibility with their other duties and probably a higher income to less time and labor. Increase of women’s employment in many countries during the last two decades has been followed by an increase in self employment and part time employment.

In 1381 the average economic activity of urban women over the age of 10 years has been slightly less than the same figure for the entire country (10.1%), which in proportion to the same statistics in 1375 (8.1% ) shows approximately 25% increase. Consequently the women’s share in urban work force has been increased from 11.3% to 14%.

3.Diversity of labor opportunities in urban job markets.

In 1375 from 991000 employed women in urban areas 53% were active in academic fields and 13.5% in production industries. The share of other activities i.e. business, service industry, management and administrative forces has been limited in absorbing women, therefore according to official statistics, there is not much indication of diversity in women’s employment opportunities. 66% of urban working women are employed in the service industry whereas 35% of men are employed in the same industry. Also, approximately 64% of urban women employees in government employment whereas only 35% of men are employed by the government. The majority of women employed in industries, work in small workshops and out of the home. In 1380, out of approximately 905000 industrial workshops with 10 employees and over, 61000 are women ( 6.8%) which mainly includes the food industry, weaving industry and chemical industry ((respectively, 19.4% 16.9% and 11% ).

3. Women’s employment in urban social structure

During 60s and 70s, one the significant changes in the lives of middle class women was the entry of educated women in the urban work force, which transformed the structure of women’s employment in towns. Absorbing educated women in semi specialized fields such as teaching and nursing and administrative and office jobs resulted in the shift from 12% in 1335 to 67% in 1355.

This information indicates that the service industry was more open to women and the reason for this fact is administrating service to women by women. This trend increased after the Revolution and the organization of educational and health centers and others, which administered services to women and girls were handed over to women. Nursing and teaching requires minimum university education, therefore women and girls without higher education had less chance of entering as official employees in these fields. This requirement in women’s job market along with cultural impediments in lesser income urban families resulted in reduction of women employees in lower income classes.

Reviewing women’s rate of employment, taking into consideration their husband’s nature of employment, indicates that families where the heads of the family’s job is specialized, semi-specialized or administrative is five times that of women from working class families. It should be mentioned that in the last four decades with the increase in average educational level of girls the rate of their economic participation has decreased. For example the average rate of education of girls from 43.6% in 1335 has increased to 93.3% in 1375. The rate of their employment from 8% in 1335 has decreased to 0.9% at the end of the fourth decade. In 1375 80% of all girls in urban areas from the age of 10-19 years were students and 2.4% were employed. These girls were mainly from lower income families who have chosen education over employment.

5. Trends and effective factors on women’s access to economic resources

In the last four decades the indicators regarding their economic participation has not altered much. In the modernization trends of 40s and 50s the participation of women from lower income groups in creating income for the families has decreased ( even though women from middle classes have rapidly entered the employment market and economic participation). On the other hand, obstacles of full time employment for women outside the home after the Revolution resulted in their part time and unofficial employment, this increase has not been mentioned in official statistics.

Reviewing effective labor laws for women we encounter important points which should be referred to as follows: The 21st principle of the Constitution is dedicated to women’s rights. Although Principle 21 does not directly point to women’s employment, but it mentions certain issues which effects women’s employment. Namely, that the husband is responsible for women’s alimony, and women are not responsible for earning their living costs, in reality the women’s employment is not a necessity bearing in mind the man’s responsibility. In the labor laws in Iran, However, securing efficient facilities for women employees have not been foreseen. For example in article 77 of labor laws, the provision of child care centers, paid maternity leave, the possibility of mothers nursing their infants half an hour every three hours have been foreseen by the employer. In practice, however many employers prefer to refrain from above commitments owing to difficulties attached, thus a decline in women’s employment figures.

7.Government policies and organizations

The most significant job creation strategies by the government during the course of the third Development Programe for Action, 1379-83 has been a crash plan for employment and self employment loans.

The Third Development Programe is considered as the starting point of government’s attention to women’ s employment issues. In this plan The Women Center For Participation is responsible for recommending a promotional employment plan to the government, as well as in articles 47 and 56 of the Third Development Plan, unemployed women heads of household, have been given priority in receiving employment loans.

In 16/2/ 82, all executive government authorities have been notified to dedicate 25% of all provincial credits to women’s priority issues. Attention has also been given to training skills for women, job creation opportunities for women, a fairer gender equilibrium in the job markets and establishment of cooperatives. Employers will benefit from tax reduction for every new employee. In 1381, The Labor High Council, has created 300,000 new job opportunities.

Credibility of this plan consists of paying a loan for approximately $3800 for each new employee to the employer and exemption from paying social security taxes for three years for their new employees. However, there is no mention of women benefiting from this plan. This is the biggest national job creation plan in the country.

According to Labor and Employment Ministry’s estimates from the total of 458,2310 job applications received by their offices nationally within the crash employment plan, 69,296 applications (15%) were from women. This number refers to women employers who have applied for loans for acquiring work force.

According to The Labor Ministry’s statistics the total number of people who have been employed as result of payment of loans to employers (283,092 persons) only 11% were women. Therefore, women have benefited little from this plan bearing in mind their regular share in the work force.

The government’s second Plan to increase employment in the recent years has been self-employment loans. From 1381 the government allocated the sum of $3800 to applicants in return for short term job creation. The time for payment of the loan is four years and according tot the submitted plan, 23,572 numbers of loans have been paid out 39% of which were to women.

Many women who received these loans, were not able to start a sustainable economic activity and consequently a large portion of these loans were used for buying necessary household equipment. Unemployment has been a major problem In the recent years resulting from the lack of coordination among skilled graduates with requirements by the job market, lack of investments in economic sectors, termination of production units and the great supply of the work force. It is possible that the above plans have been key factor in temporary reduction in unemployment figures, but it’s effect on increased employment for women has not been very significant. None of the bills passed on these plans have foreseen any provisions for women. An office for women has been established in many ministries, they do not, however have a role in making internal strategies, nor do they possess any facilities or funds other than for organizing Women’s Day and other related events. The only decision making institutions regarding employment are High Council of Employment and Economics and The National Council for Administration, which bearing in mind the ruling cultural view, men as heads of households foresees no particular provisions for women.

The study of existing Guild Organizations which support the work force indicate that in sectors such as teaching and nursing, which constitute the main portion of women’s work force, women’s activities are limited, but they are even less active in trade unions .

Conclusion

One of the major issues concerning women in the economic sector is limitation and meager diversity in job opportunities in the following sectors: industry, commerce, transport…… owing to a prevailing male dominating culture in these activities, which causes obstacles for unskilled women lacking higher education to higher paid jobs. In spite of lack of necessary studies on the promotion of women work force in the work environment, existing evidence point to extensive impediments for women’ promotion in the work place in being given managerial and decision making responsibilities.

During the recent years , Government’s involvement in creating employment does not place women in favorable position, other than in special cases where women heads of households are concerned. The absence of women from labor organizations, and their limited presence in other guild organizations, is one of the inflammatory reasons for existing gender inequality in the work force.

Young women and girls who have turned to the job market after graduating from schools and universities are subject to severe competition in a male domineering culture in the work place must strive to overcome dominant cultural taboos in many economic fields regarding women. Consequently, owing to existing government limitations regarding employment they must continue to promote their employment opportunities in the private and public sectors.

Women and Violence
Shahla Ezazi


Introduction

Violence against women has a historical and cultural background. Owing to special attention paid to this issue it has become recognized at different periods and societies.

Violence against women is not only limited to domestic cases, it also exists in society and its institutions. International organizations have also focused on violence against women aiming on particular forms of violence resulting from gender discrimination in societies. United Nations defines violence against women as follows: Any violent action based on gender differences resulting in physical, emotional and sexual abuse against women or culminating in such violence, namely being threatened by these actions, being deprived of their liberties or repression whether publicly or in private (resolution 48/104, General Assembly Dec.20, 1993).

In the Center for Reviewing Violence there are two meanings for authority and inequality of power. Violence can also be defined: Individual possessing power (physical, economic and social) uses that power to force another individual to unwillingly act in any manner. Power relations should not only be regarded as a relationship between two individuals, as it also includes societies. For if the structure of the society allows a power hierarchy, in which men are placed higher than women we will find ourselves in an authoritarian and male dominated society.

Consequently, the society’s outlook is formed on the basis of inequality between men and women and its reflection can be seen in a gender-biased distribution of responsibilities. Gender stereotypes will be formed and qualities associated with being a man will be looked upon positively with the opposite applying to being a woman. Hence society will possess a gender-biased perspective. Men will structure ideologies according to their own vested interests, which will not only be recognized by men, which will be in time believed in and by women. These gender-biased ideologies will effect law making, customs and behavior, eventuating in support for men. Men place themselves in higher positions and use violence and intolerance to monitor women’s actions. Women will not only place themselves in subordinate positions and give men the right to use violence, but also recognize such relationships as natural.

Gender inequality at institutional levels is known as structural violence, and contrary to domestic violence, violence is not directed against the individual. Assessing structural violence contrary to individual violence is not readily recognizable and is only visible through unequal distribution of power, which result in inequality of social opportunities.

Male violence therefore, consists of male supremacy over all women in society, which has a historical background seen in many parts of the world. Structural violence in society strengthens violence as a norm, which increases violence against the individual resulting in a cycle of violence in society. Structural violence does not only entail women, but includes all public punishment such as lashing, cutting off limbs and lapidation, which all help to strengthen and endorse individual violent behavior.

Violence against women in Iran

The objective of this report is defining the situation of women in the critical area of violence against women whose main problem is inadequate source of statistics and information. Up until a few years ago the issue of violence against women was not recognized in Iran, even in issues such as prostitution a silence prevailed forbidding any discussion on the issue. Today, the above issues have found a place in academic discourse and public opinion.

In Iranian society, men, as breadwinners and heads of family have many more rights as opposed to their spouses. At the society level men have more power of mobility and presence in centers outside the home. The presence of women and young girls although unavoidable, is far more monitored in smaller cities by their families. Positions of responsibility and decision making are at the disposal of men. Consequently three levels of violence against women can be reviewed, domestic violence, public violence and violence at the work place.

Situation of women in the family

Family unit in Iran has an important place. In opinion polls show that 92% of women and 95% of men place the importance of family unit at very high levels (Mohseni 1375). According to domestic laws the marital rights of men is far higher than that of women and women lose many of their rights after marriage.

We are confronted with all sorts of domestic violence against women. From basic physical abuse such as pushing, slapping and hair pulling to extreme cases resulting in hospital care, verbal abuse, threats, extreme suspicion, economic violence (destitution of spouses), imprisonment, seclusion and rape (when women are unwilling to perform intercourse).

Men are placed in higher position of society such as law making, the Executive and Judiciary and consider daily issues of women as petty, unimportant and natural. Consequently women’s issues and experiences are neither taken into account legally nor in social norms, customs and customs and, in some cases, the law plays an opposition role to women forcing them to accept their problems.

In such society, the hierarchies of genders stereotyping, which is a male dominion accepts verbal abuse and violent behavior by men against women. Accordingly, domestic violence and violence used as tool against his wife and children as form of punishment is equally accepted. In such cases, the violent man does not bear the burden of blame, but the victim is reproached, as she does not comply to her husband’s demands and this is acceptable by society.

This problem also exists according to customs in public places, presence of women in the streets during certain hours in the day is considered as unacceptable behavior by women. In many tribal customs the sin of the victim is so much bigger than the perpetrator and signifies family’s honor that only through killing of the victim the rest of the family can continue to live. The law has so many provisions for the perpetrator to escape punishment that it only endorses the promotion of violence.

The main reason for the tolerance of domestic violence by women is their fear of divorce and its consequences subsequently, women remain in their marriage as economic dependents to men, both for financial security, social shame and staying with their children. Women in violent domestic surroundings suffer from emotional illnesses, disabilities, abortion and losing their confidence and such like. The needs of these women should be taken into special consideration.

Women’s situation in outside the home in the work place

Although, women and young girls go outside their homes for various activities, but they must abide by certain unwritten laws such as, returning home before dark, unless accompanied by a male family member, staying away from dark and secluded places.

In some cases women are subjected to violence merely owing to their gender, such as sexual harassment, sexual molestation and even rape and murder. Men subject women and girls in the streets to all sorts of verbal abuse, from aesthetic praise to obscene remarks, lustful stares, physical contact and exhibitionism, rape and murder, and murder of prostitutes for immoral behavior. In the latter case women are victimized twice for the same crime, once for being part of a society who condones men’s needs for relationship with prostitutes and once for being murdered by men who are not seeking to punish the customer, but rather to punish the supplier.

Lacking confidence in the work place to stand up to harassment by men, and having weak positions and not being connected to power networks which are mainly formed by men subjects them to sexual weakness. According to unwritten laws, mingling of men and women in the workplace is not acceptable and is limited to work related matters. On the other hand women must maintain Islamic hejab at the workplace and any violation may results in punishment as any condemnation regarding the Islamic dress code is only directed towards women and men are not subject to judgment or any obligations regarding their dress code.

Violence in the work place also includes men initiating relationships or accidental physical contact. Sexual harassment consists of two phases one, favors in return for promotion and two, threat of being laid off in case of non-compliance. Women’s financial insecurity, fear of social shame for repeating sexual advances by their superiors and lack of any particular organization to see to these complaints stops women from repeating their experiences. In the event of a complaint being processed internally it results in the man being sent to another department. By submitting themselves to the above abuses women gain the possibility to maintain their jobs and they are subject to reproach and losing their jobs if they openly discuss these issues.

Legal and social doors open to women

Paragraph 20 of the Constitution states that all subjects in the country, both men and women are equal in the eyes of justice and can enjoy the following: human rights, political rights, social rights and cultural rights in consideration of the Islamic criteria.

In some laws, however, such as the Islamic family laws there are distinct differences between men and women.

Laws, customs and traditions keep women away from accessing, social resources and benefits, training, literacy, health, access to information, wealth, income, social respect as well as being responsible for their bodies and independent decision making regarding their individual activities.

Social resources are almost entirely at the disposal of men. Domestic violence committed by men is as result of the following: Domestic laws allow men to supervise his spouse’s behavior, ability to move, choice of employment, the right to divorce unconditionally, custody and guardianship, all are granted to men after marriage. After marriage man is obliged to pay alimony and woman is obliged to sexual submission (tamkin) hence, transferring the control of sexual relationship to men. Failing to comply sexually is an important condition for men to file for divorce, in which case if proven, men will be exempted from paying alimony. Owing to many social and legal tools at their disposal men are enabled to do as they please.

In the recent years women have tried to change the existing male dominating social structure, for example, by trying to have their demands for higher education met, which was opposed by the government by introducing gender quotas at universities. Women’s subordinate position in the society and challenges they face cannot only be met by legal action. Changing social norms and conditions also require special measures of support for women and children and significant cultural changes.

Women in Power and Decision Making
Soheila Tahmasebifar


Introduction

Owing to progress in societies, institutionalization of public relations domain, dialogue and public reactions, power has been transformed from an individual and trivial domain to a public institution and from a theory to public concept. From the beginning the definition of power in Iran is intertwined with its structure and is described in these frames: Individual, tribal, domestic and gender perspective. Individual powers from monarchy to the people ( republic) are prone to gender inequality.

Although, gender phenomena in power and decision making has a historical back ground in human culture and is dependent on production, social, cultural, legal, religious and political structures, the question of liberating women from gender inequality has created an upheaval in power institutions globally. This movement has inspired the concept of equality and liberation of women in all domains of power and government decision making, family unit and in the private sector. Causing the rights of half the world’s population, which was so far deprived under the private sector to be revoked.

On the basic areas of concern we will evaluate the role of women in power and decision making in the following areas:

1. indicators of participation in the institutions of power and decision making.

2. Evaluating legal trends including access and control.

3. Evaluation of trends and function of using power by women in decision making.

4. The above areas will be evaluated in ruling and government institutions, public and civil and private and the family unit, based on women’s participation their access to power and decision making.

i) Legal conditions regarding the ruling and government institutions state the following. Women are not legally (religiously) banned from membership in any the following institutions, beyond the Legislative, Executive and the Judiciary such as the Islamic Jurisdiction, The Expediency Council and the Guardian Council and their prerequisite for membership is educational merit, justice and piety and the correct vision. As far as statistics are concerned there is has never been any women at decision making levels in the above institutions.

ii) The government is the most extensive as executive power in the regime, which consists of three main powers, The Executive, The legislative and the Judiciary.

In paragraph 615 of the Constitution , there is no mention of gender of the President.

iii) The Judiciary, Paragraph 157 of the Constitution states that, the head of the Judiciary will be elected by the Leader as just and legally competent male cleric. In 1361, it became law that only men can judge, in 1374 women were promoted to becoming consultant and research judges without the power to pass judgment. Other sections of the legal system such as becoming a lawyer is open to women.

iv) Legislative, according paragraph 162 of the Constitution women can become members of parliament.

Public and civil domain

Civil society can influence the government through power mechanisms and public participation. Through widespread political participation by the public, political parties, and associations and councils and the media can monitor government activity and hold the government responsible to its actions.

Private sector

Bearing in mind the discriminatory family laws for women, article 1305 Islamic civil code, which states that men are uncontested heads of families and women have no legal rights therefore, have to abide by their husband’s demands, women are not included in the major decision making regarding their families and themselves.

Laws and Accessing institutions of power and decision making

According to civil law men are responsible as heads of family, their security and issue regarding women such as choice of work, housing and residency is the man’ s right and women have no power in decision making. As long as women are not on an equal standing with men in all areas of civil law it is not expected that they should have an effective presence in the domain of power and decision making. Creation of a patriarchal power in society turns women into second class citizens and places them in a subordinate position to men at levels of family and society.

Evaluation of trends and functions of using power by women in power and decision making

Taking into consideration women’s increased presence in educational institutions, employment and politics it is assumed that they are able to have a greater presence in institutions of power and decision making.

The small number of women, who constitute 4% of members of parliament, 2.66% of town councils, 1.2% of higher management, 5.2% in managerial positions, 11.8% of employment in government, private and public sectors is indicative of a minimal participation of women at power and decision making levels. Bearing in mind that of women constitute an 80% of all acceptances in institutions of higher education and their important role in realizing the Islamic Revolution they have been subject to extreme inequality in distribution of power. The reason for such inequality is, gender discrimination, legal and judicial inequality which poses as a serious obstacle for progress in women participation in power and decision making. Consequently their role in higher institutions of power has been non existent. At government, public and private sectors, level statistics prove minimal participation by women. There are no women ministers, they have only ineffective roles as advisors. All in all they have extremely participation at all other levels of power and decision making in the country.

Based on the above information, the structure of power is entirely male dominated placing women at the very lowest levels of decision making despite the rise in their levels of awareness. Although there have been some improvement in women’s presence in town councils, nevertheless the position of women in the political institutions of the country is extremely poor.

Existing statistics of women’s participation at managerial levels obtained by UNDP imply that Iran is in the lower levels globally. In 1998, UNDP’s report place Sweden with an indicator of 7900 as the highest and Nigeria with 121 as the lowest in the world. Iran among 102 countries has an indicator of 261. Comparing Iran’s position globally as the 87th country with the latest statistics of 2002 indicate that not only there has been no improvement in national standards, but there has been deterioration. These statistics indicate that out of 172 countries Iran has obtained 98th position, which imply an unfavorable position of women’s political participation.

Human Rights of Women
Sarvenaz Vafa


In a world where violence and discrimination against women is rampant and widely tolerated, safeguarding the human rights of women is not an easy task. Promotion and advancement of the rights of women and urgent focus on women’s issues in Iran was one of the campaign slogans addressed to the female constituents by the reformists prior to their election into power in 1996. In a nutshell, however, the overall evaluation of human rights of women in Iran places us in the range of countries with worst records of violations of women’s human rights.

Affirmations in the qualitative objectives of the government report prepared for Beijing round up the main theme of government’s plan of action as follows. Wherever necessary, the civil code and other laws dealing with women’s issues must be revised, enacted and new laws enforced. The qualitative objectives refer to legal reform mostly in areas of family and labour laws, disregarding women’s civil rights, which are as much subject to grave inadequacies as other laws pertaining to women. As there is no clear definition of the right of women as an individual and specifically within the family, human rights violations of women are not taken seriously

Although, some legal reform for women has been implemented since 1996, some members of the government fail to acknowledge that women’s issues exist in Iran, nor that it should be treated independently of other items on the parliamentary agenda. On the whole, during the course of the past two decades it has been fairly evident that women’s issues have always been considered as secondary to be dealt with after the primary issues of greater importance.

1. STATUS OF WOMEN IN THE CONSTITUTION

The preamble to the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran refers to women.

“Through the creation of the Islamic social infrastructures all elements of humanity….shall gain their true identity and human rights. It is only natural that women should benefit from a particularly large augmentation of their rights because of the greater oppression that they have suffered.

Article 3 paragraph 14 of the Constitution, women are granted security and protection, of the law on an equal basis with men. This article states that the government ensures rights of all citizens, men and women and grants them legal protection, equality and justice under the law

Article 20: All citizens of the country both men and women, equally enjoy the protection of the law and enjoy all human, political, economic, social and cultural rights, in conformity with Islamic rights.

Article 21: The government must ensure the rights of the women in all respects, in conformity with Islamic criteria, and accomplish the following goals. Few paragraphs of this article are as follows.

1.Create a favourable environment for growth of personality and restoration of her rights, both material and cultural.

2.Protection of mothers particularly during maternity, and the protection of the child without guardians.

3.Competent family courts.

4.insurance for widows and the elderly women without support.

5. Awarding guardianship of children to worthy mothers in the absence of a legal guardian.

Article 115 of the Islamic Constitution, the President must be elected amongst Rejal male political and religious figures with the Constitution forbid women to become president.

In article 21, Not withstanding paragraph 5 which, awards custody to suitable mothers only in absence of a legal guardian the other paragraphs are supportive of women and have been fairly effectively adopted into the civil code.

Other articles, however, such as article 3 paragraph 14 and article 115 are discriminatory to women. In the former although, women are supposed to enjoy equal rights as men in justice and protection under the law, it only grants women equal rights as petitioners rather than being granted equal rights in legal proceedings and judgment which is effectively impossible without substantial legal reform.

2. THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN THE CIVIL CODE

Iran's patriarchal culture serves as a sever impediment to the realization of women's rights and the eradication of discrimination, both social and legal, against them. Essentially, a patriarchal culture is intricately intertwined in our society and influences all major institutions from family to the government to the legal system and other institutions of power. As our legal codes are based on a patriarchal foundation, the laws inadvertently tend to favour men and place women in a subordinate position.

*Article 1133 of civil code in divorce, a man has the right to divorce his wife whenever he wills.

Article 1130of civil code, woman’s right to divorce, if a situation arises that makes continuation of marital life unbearable for the woman, she may file for divorce under the following circumstances.

*Article 1075 civil code in temporary marriage, a temporary marriage is one for which there is time limit.

This law is extremely discriminatory to women as it allows a married man to take as many women in temporary marriage as he wants without his wife’s permission

Article 907 inheritance, women’s inheritance is half of men. There has been some reform in inheritance laws whereas a wife used to inherit only 1/8 of her husband’s estate, land excluded, as women do not inherit land, and men inherited 1/4 of his wife’s estate, now if the man has no immediate beneficiary his wife inherits half his estate.

Article 1210 civil code (section 1) legal age, a boy reaches legal maturity at the age of 15 and a girl at the age of 9. Girls enter the domain of criminal justice six years before boys and can be tried as an adult at that age. Although she cannot vote till she is 15 and needs her father’s permission for her first marriage at whatever age, she is a virgin.

There has been an amendment to the law concerning girls’ legal age for marriage, a provision, which has taken the legal age of girls for marriage from nine to thirteen years of age.

Article 1169 civil code custody, in custody mothers can keep a male child for two from birth and female child for up to seven years after birth. After that time the custody is awarded to the father. This law has been amended in 2003 and women are now awarded custody of their children both male and female up to the age of seven, after which the court decides which parent is awarded custody.

3. STATUS OF WOMEN IN THE PENAL CODE

Much of the family laws and all of the Criminal code of the Islamic Republic of Iran is based upon and derived from the Islamic Sharia. There exist today, different points of view among the Muslim theologians in Iran as to the validity of certain interpretations in these laws, and some affirm that the magnanimity of theology (fiq) allows reform according to evolution of human beings and requirements of the time Hence attempts are being made to reform some of these laws and adjust them to present day standards of human development. Nevertheless male interpretations of Sharia has resulted in extreme discrimination against women in laws in some instances in complete violation of their basic human rights.

(DIYAT) BLOOD MONEY AND QISAS (TALIO)

Blood money payable to the family of the deceased or to the injured party. Qisas (talio) is an eye for an eye punishment, in both these laws extreme discrimination exists against women.

*Article 300 penal code in blood money, a Muslim woman’s blood money is half that of a Muslim man.

Article 207 Islamic Criminal Code, Whenever a Muslim man is killed, the perpetrator will be sentenced to death. In the event of women being killed, however there are many loopholes for the perpetrator, especially if he is an immediate male family member i.e. husband, father, grandfather, paternal uncle or brother.

Article 209 of the same law states, whenever a Muslim man murders a Muslim woman with premeditation, the family of the victim will have to pay half of the man’s blood money before the murderer is executed (article 213).

(HODOUD, HAD I JELD, HAD E RAJM) LAPIDATION AND OTHER FORMS OF PHYSICAL PUNISHMENT

Hodoud literally means limits. In this context it refers to limits of physical punishment, for crimes committed that carry the death penalty or being lashed, such as adultery, association with men to whom a woman is not related, prostitution, drinking and being inappropriately dressed. In lapidation (stoning to death) which is a punishment foreseen both for married men and women, statistics show that the number of women stoned to death far exceed that of men. The Judiciary has recommended that all judges commute stoning to death to other forms of more humanitarian punishment.

*Article 638 dress code, Whenever a woman appears in public without the appropriate Islamic covering (hejab), she will be sentenced to lashings and fined. Recently, the sentence can be commuted to cash fines. Again in this case as there are no clear definitions of the “appropriate Islamic hejab nor the punishment”; women are at the mercy of the disciplinary forces and or the judge.

LAWS IN SUPPORT OF WOMEN

Article 642 of penal code supporting the family laws, (passed June 1995) anyone who is capable of and doesn’t support his wife financially while they are still in a marriage will be sentenced to jail from 3months and 10days to 5 months. This supports women whose husbands leave them in financial distress.

Article 645 of penal code supporting family laws, in order to support the respect of the family unit, it is mandatory to register permanent marriage, divorce and reconciliation after divorce in a notary.

LEGAL REFORM FOR WOMEN AFTER 1995

There have been a number of legal reforms carried out regarding women since 1995. Amendment of note 5 of the law addressing the selection of judges, (1995). According to this law the head of the judiciary can employ women qualified under the law, to be selected as judges (enacted in 1983), they are, however, forbidden to pass judgment or a sentence.

A provision of support for women released from prison (1995).

Extending maternity leave, rest during maternity was extended from a period of 84 days to 120 days (in 1994).

Article 81 Social security law, an edict stating measures for the enforcement of a provision incorporated into the social security law on pension.

Article 1082 of civil code Marriage portion amendment to, the law on marriage portion payable to women has been updated

Statutes of limitations, a clause enforcing the statutes of limitations in the event of incompatibility between couples when filing for divorce, three months and ten days, (1998).

Revised terms of employment in the disciplinary forces, based on these provision women will be employed to administer to women inmates and mange prisons (1998).

Article 1173 of the civil code Child custody laws amended.

Decree to provide social security for women and children without heads of household.

STATE OF CEDAW

Pushed by internal forces, Iran has been trying to ratify The Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women for the past two years. Iran’s failure to ratify CEDAW was indirectly pointed out in the United Nations’ Resolution in November 2003, to condemn Iran’s violation of Human rights. Reformists however have so far been defeated in achieving accession to CEDAW. According to those opposing the accession to the Convention, the Convention’s essence and principle articles oppose core Islamic criteria. . Articles 2,11,15 and 16 are the most likely to create obstacles for Iran joining the Convention. On the question of reservations the common argument by some opponents is that most of core articles of the Convention are incompatible with the Sharia laws and consequently the reservations entered would be directed towards those articles which would in any event be rejected.

There has been much debate in the parliament during the past year between members supporting the accession and those opposing it. The bill has twice been rejected by the Guardian Council and it is expected to reappear for further discussion at a future date. Owing to the conservative majority voted into the parliament in spring, however, it remains to be seen whether or not there will be an effective follow up in future by members of parliament.

SITUATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS OF WOMEN IN VIOLENCE AGAINST

Male empowering laws inflame social and domestic violence against women and not much is being done to prevent it. Negative social attitudes towards women, places them in a victim role from early on in life and traditionalist cultures that feed into such perceptions cause women to live in fear of shame or being ostracized. Domestic violence, which in extreme case results in death, is not treated seriously by authorities. The lack of sufficient number of safe houses for women, cultural shame and lack of credibility of women often forces women to remain silent about their abuse for long periods of time, or until they are killed.

HONOUR KILLINGS

Generally regarded as passive members of society who are given in marriage as opposed to partake in marriage, women are born into a culture where they are expected to be entitled to fewer rights than men from birth. Male empowering laws such as filicide and male as uncontested heads of household create a fertile ground for crimes against women.

Outdated customs and harmful traditions are the main cause of honour killings and immolation.

Article 220 Islamic Criminal code, in filicide, whenever a father or a grand father commits murder of his own child or grand child he will not be sentenced to death.

Article 1105 of the civil code, in relationship between a couple, the man is the uncontested head of the household .

Although we have no access to reliable statistics in such heinous crimes as honour killings, existing statistics indicate that honour killings is rampant in western and south western provinces in Iran, namely Khouzistan and Elam. The perpetrators of honour killings which is often a close male relative of the victim and commits the crime to save family honour is a traditional form of defense against honour in many tribes in these provinces. The punishment for the perpetrators is often a fairly short prison sentence. According to statistics provided by a consultant to the governor of Khouzistan last year alone there have been more than 45 cases of honour killings of women under the age of 20, in one tribe alone. In 2001 565 women lost their lives to honour killings, 375 of which immolated themselves.

On average one woman losses her life every day in the province of Elam, 98% of whom are on average 22to 23 years old. Shirvan and Chardoval are at the top of the list with 170 honour killings, Darrehshar is second with 165, Abadan is third with 100, Elam is fourth with 50, Mehran is fifth with 45 and Ivan is sixth with 30.

Recently it has been reported that perpetrators burn the birth certificate of the victim and hide the body to escape justice.

Other harmful traditions in some of these provinces are Hedieh, literally meaning a gift, where a family presents a young girl member to another family as show of good will or if as means of consoling the latter if they are in mourning. In the tradition of Nahveh, each girl is betrothed to her maternal cousin to be married in future. Many cases of self immolation are used as means of escape from this tradition of forced marriage.

TRAFFICKING

Though the government deals harshly with perpetrators of Trafficking, there are, nevertheless, an increasing number of cases of women trafficking in the Northeast provinces of Iran. Most trafficking of girls and young women occur in eastern provinces and mainly in boarder towns with Pakistan and Afghanistan where women are kidnapped, bought or entered into temporary marriage in order to be sold into slavery, mostly sexual in other countries.

CONCLUSION

To promote women’s human rights and fundamental rights it is essential to stop infringement of their fundamental rights and freedoms, to reform and advance their civil, legal, social, political, economical and cultural rights. For the government and institutions of power to affirm that women’s rights equal human rights and for civil society and the government to work together to create a secure domestic, social and legal environment for women.

GIRL –CHILD
Ziba Jalali Naeni

INTRODUCTION

The importance of an analytical review of the status of young girls becomes readily apparent when one considers the demographic realities of the young population of Iran, and the changes this large group would effect on the cultural and economic life of the country in a relatively short time, and also because of the fact that girls, who number more than half of this great population of youth, play a major role in the future of Iran as child-bearers and mothers who are the primary medium carrying tradition and transferring culture to the next generation.

At the same time, the vulnerable situation of the young in general, and the gender gap and the cultural, legal, and economic inequalities facing our youth today have created an environment of crisis rife with adverse conditions for girls and young women.

This is an analysis of this gender gap, the problems, and the status of young women in the private sphere –within the family and in personal relationships- and the public and social sphere where these same issues resonate and repeat in one form or another.

FROM BIRTH THROUGH CHILDHOOD

Gender inequality begins from the moment of birth when the "girl" infant is looked at as different and sometimes less than a boy. This perceptual prejudice against girls and similarly unfavorable traditional outlooks are clearly reflected in numerous studies and surveys done on the condition and status of the young.

In addition to the way we distinguish between boys and girls and the differences in the way we educate them, which are the result of our own presumptions, and the cultural baggage that is placed on girls even before they are born clearly demonstrates the gender prejudice and desire for a male child is still prevalent in our society.

Statistics show the death rate per 100,000, to be 234 for girls and 200 for boys. The primary causes of death are Crib Death, drowning, and poison and toxin consumption, in that order.

CHILDREN'S RIGHTS AND CHILD ABUSE

Iran joined the Convention of The Right of the Child. and its articles went into effect in Iran. But in our culture the recognition of the civil and legal rights of children is bound to traditional points of view and in general parents do not respect their children's decisions and choices. What such cases we are currently witnessing via various media are more the result of the incompatibility of this outlook- in which the child is not thought of as a human being with his or her own particular rights and status but as the parents' property, especially that of the father's – with the changes gradually made in the new family and social structures.

Based on the data given by the Executive Director of the Welfare Organization of the Tehran Province, more than 4000 calls were received by the Children's Line, of which 76 cases were identified as child abuse. Of this number fathers formed the largest group; then mothers, step-mothers, parents and others, in that order. More than 75% of abuse cases occur in the family environment and on children between 5 and 14.

As the result of research done on this subject, the main factors causing this problem are economic problems, the relative young age of the parents, crowded family environment, the failure of the family to provide the proper education for the children, and the parents' ignorance of the children's problems, at least one drug-addict in the family, previous abuse in earlier childhood, and having to deal with stressful situations.

Moreover, children have no legal recourse, and also because all family matters are thought to belong to a "private" sphere, any such concerns will automatically be considered a matter for the man of the family, or even family friends, to deal with. The silence of abused children in Iran becomes better understood within the context of traditional mores and social norms.

THE FORMAL AND INFORMAL EDUCATION OF YOUNG GIRLS

In the first decade of the Iranian Revolution, along with a new interpretation of educational opportunities, Islamic and otherwise, which became available, even in the remotest villages -especially those opportunities affecting fathers- dramatically reduced the number of cultural and educational obstacles facing young girls. As a result girls found a way into primary schools, and enrollment rates went up 50%, even in some rural areas.

According to existing national statistical data boys form 51% of the total primary school student population and girls 49%. In Tehran, the total enrollment rates are 98% for boys and 99% for girls. This number for girls swings between 84% in Sistan and Baluchistan and 77% in the West Azerbaijan farm country.

Even though there is not a discernible difference in the enrollment numbers for girls and boys on the national level, the absolute number of girls who are deprived of educational opportunities is twice that of the boys, and the number of rural children who do not have access to schools is four times that of their urban counterparts.

A survey of the existing data shows that girls only have majority in three areas, Junior high-school, University-Prep day-schools, and the fifth-grade night-classes. This, among other reasons, may be due to the fact that a large number of boys who graduate from high-school prefer to join the work-force or go through their Army service obligation to start earning more money.

PUBERTY AND SEXUAL IDENTITY

In our today’s youth culture, sexual identity has developed and taken form outside the family environment, and not in harmony with other areas where issues of identity are involved.

In a survey done by the National Youth Organization 49% of girls and 27% of boys wish they were of the opposite sex. This data shows that twice the number of girls are not happy with their sexual status and consider the opposite sex to be better off. In recent years, one can observe a definite change in the mores and sexual behavior of young girls, especially in urban areas. And, sociologists keep warning of the danger inherent in oppressing young people’s sexual desires in an atmosphere offering an increasing number of tools for sexual temptation and arousal threatening traditional Iranian norms. According to experts on women’s issues the presence of girls and women ‘working’ the streets was a harbinger of a hidden sexual revolution in our young society.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND ITS EFFECTS

The changes that occurred in the first decade of the Revolution in the education of girls in Iran, a trend that continued in the second decade to 1380, is quite clear in the rates of enrollment today, and when it comes to competing for entry into the higher educational levels girls are ahead of boys, to a point where, in the third decade of the Revolution we are facing a 97% rate of enrollment for the girl population of the country.

If qualitative improvements could keep up with quantitative growth one can expect real and fundamental cultural change and social effects. In this way, the education of girls and young women will prove to be the key to attitude and behavior changes in Iran; something that has been proven as well in other countries.

While the high rates and level of achievement among Iranian girls and young women is a point of pride in the context of international standards, in the new academic year we are witnessing regulations limiting the girl’s educational options as far as choosing their desired majors are concerned. Meaning that, even when they showed clear superiority, they were forced into an arbitrary 50-50 division of slots in medical sciences where they are confronted with a new type of sexual discrimination. According to an observer; “It seems that the struggle of women to gain an education in Iran is only tolerated up to a limit which does not threaten the academic future of boys.”

FORMAL AND INFORMAL EMPLOYMENT OF GIRLS

The increase in the number of educated girl ready to enter the work-force but lacking adequate job opportunities coupled with national labor policies favoring the man as the sole provider in the family accelerates the rate of unemployment and exacerbates the situation for girls and young women. Therefore, while women more than meet international standards in educational participation they have to make do with a job market that according to recent statistics leaves 35830 girls of 10 to 14, 94453 young women of 15-19, and 80576 women of 20 to 24 looking for work.

A majority of the female population aged between 10 and 19 works within the family sphere which implies unregulated work environments leaving girls with adverse pay conditions –in many cases non-payment of wages- no legal rights, and lacking job security and insurance.

Another issue is the change occurring in social views on the employment of girls and young women outside of the home. According to research done in four Iranian states 46.9% of the total population is in favor of women working outside the home and 35.4 against, and more than half the population favor the woman earning an income.

INCOME RATES FOR YOUNG GIRLS

According to data from the National Youth Organization average incomes for young girls (14-29) are 50,000 Rls. Less than their male counterparts for the Tehran Province in 1381; The average income for young employed males is 550,000 Rls., while women in the same age category earn 500,000.

It is necessary to consider the fact that these wages can hardly meet the young people’s minimum living requirements –especially in metropolitan areas. Moreover, “unemployment” and “the lack of recreational and entertainment possibilities” are the top factors cited as problems facing women in Iran; Human-Rights and liberty, and educational opportunities come next.

MARRIAGE

Like the rest of the world the average age of marriage has increased; In 1375, the average age for a young man was 25.3, and 22.1 for young women.

The most important obstacles to marriage in Iran are economic problems, while because of the family’s failure to provide adequate support young people play an active role in planning their marriage goals.

Of course, those young women who decide to continue their education after marriage may also face family and cultural opposition. Commitments like caring for their spouse, raising children, keeping a home, and other responsibilities become priorities leaving no room for personal goals and inclinations. Such factors are clearly reflected in a survey done by the Participation Office on Women's Issues on the needs and priorities of young women who rank marriage as the sixth and employment as their second priority in life.

UNEQUAL RIGHTS FOR YOUNG GIRLS

Laws in Iran have yet to offer a clear definition of the end of childhood. An individual can be described as a child in one instant and as an adult in another. For example, a 10-year old girl is considered under-aged when it comes to employment –because labor regulations do not allow children under the age of 15 to work- while this same girl can be considered an adult when it comes to criminal laws; Criminal liability is keyed to the age of puberty which for girls is defined as 8 years and nine months, and for boys as 14 years and seven months.. A 9-year old girl can marry, bear children, and sign legal contracts, and if she commits a crime be prosecuted as a mature adult and even be executed under current laws, but this same individual can not vote or get a job.

A girl’s Diyeh (Blood Money) is half a boy’s, and this rate is fixed from womb stage when the sex of the fetus is identified.

Regulation 1143 of the Civil Law makes the marriage of a virgin female conditional to the consent and permission of the father or paternal ancestry even if she is of the legal age, while a boy has no such restrictions. Moreover, the father or the paternal ancestry can, according to the amendment to Reg. 1041 of the Civil Law, marry their underage daughter or grand-daughter to a man of their own choosing.

Laws governing wills and inheritance categorically define the share of daughters as half of the sons.

THE STATUS OF YOUNG GIRLS AND SOCIAL DAMAGE
It is in the nature of social damage to stay hidden, and the dearth of actual data in this area which is because of this inherent silence should not diminish attention to its immense importance.

SEXUAL ABUSE

The silence in the face of sexual abuse at home is the result of attitudes and teachings inculcated into young girls from an early age. A girl is conditioned to think that the arousal of the man is her fault, as a result of which she becomes vulnerable to abuse and rape. This same belief and the fear of pre-judgment, which make way for a feeling of guilt lead children and young women to keep silent about the abuse and leaves the sexual offender free to continue the vicious cycle of abuse.

MURDER TO RECLAIM HONOR

Murder to reclaim lost honor is among the most violent crimes done against women. The murder of women for honor and pride, rooted in the feudalist philosophy of “Woman, Gold, and Land” is the symbol of enforcing men’s will on and their absolute power over women.

Crimes of this sort, which are in one form or the other planned beforehand, and are done with family members’ consent –even the mother’s and other female members’ approval- in most cases are not reported to officials and are staged to seem like suicides and self-immolation. In cases when the police discover the crime the family backs the murderer who either gets off free or has to serve a drastically reduced sentence.

Only the father is the sole arbitrator over a son or daughter's life and death. When he kills his child he is free from Qesas, Islam's equivalent of "an eye for an eye."

GIRLS ON THE STREETS

Studies done on ‘working’ girls and women indicate that 60% of them were the victims of sexual abuse in their childhood or youth. Statistics show that 70% of these to have been abused by their fathers or step-fathers. Research done on young prostitutes, female criminals and drug-addicts, and runaways clearly reflect the bitter truth of sexual abuse in childhood the long-term effects of which are sexual promiscuity, escape from home and responsibility, criminal behavior, and a multitude of anxieties and neuroses. Many of the women who roam the streets to escape the sexual offender at home, fall victim to other abusers and have to enter illegitimate and adverse relationships in order to find food, shelter, and clothing.

RUNAWAYS

According to existing data 80% of female runaways are in their teens. More than 60% of those seeking help in shelters and support centers have escaped a number of times before and more than 50% of those coming to these centers are addicts of which 33% have started using drugs at home. 46% of these young women confess that they have repeatedly been abused by parents at home. The highest rate of illegitimate-pregnancy among this population is for those between 16 and 18. The most important causes for running away from home are, conflict with other family members, poverty, being tricked into a sexual act by a friend, bad supervision, lack of supervision, the various temptations offer by the titillating urban environment, and illegitimate sexual relationships.

The Deputy Director of the Juvenile Court has stated that in Tehran there are no help-centers for runaway girls.

SHAME TRADE

What we have been witnessing more and more in recent years is the phenomenon of the Black Trade and or girl-trafficking in the Persian Gulf region, a trade far more profitable than other sorts of black-market trade such as drug trafficking. Because of laws are silent on this important issue, traffickers are free to indulge in such a shameful trade completely unhindered.

Unfortunately there are no reliable data on the subject, but one can cite warnings issued by immigration officials in the UAE about the rising and uncontrollable growth of this sort of trade jeopardizing that country's social traditions and moral codes.

BASIC ISSUES AND FUNDAMENTAL FACTORS

Statistics demonstrate that the personal and social status of young women in Iran places them in a vulnerable situation. Part of the problem is that they have neither entered the productive economic arena nor their personal reproductive stage. But this same data show that young women are given the opportunity for sexual and social self-evaluation and gender-consciousness in various venues of life and society just like their male counterparts, they make great strides and reach the highest levels of achievement. And their increasing population with its commensurate needs and desires will be the major force dictating change in gender relations in all areas. There is a discrepancy between such indicators as literacy rates for girls aged 15+, hope and looking for a better future, population growth, the rate of children per mother, and the low numbers for economic participation and the share of the proverbial pie, this gender gap has become one of the central problems in the discourse about women’s issues.

The rising number of educated and unemployed women in urban societies, and their increasing awareness of the lack of gender equality, and the dominance of a paternalistic culture which is faced with the intensifying competition for available jobs are issues that are bound to become major challenges for Iran in the very near future.

Another one of the most important issues confronting girls and young women is the problem of violence which will remain unchecked and grow in silence. The kind of upbringing at home, the non-enforcement of civil laws, lack of guarantees for the application of laws and regulations, lack of confidence in the judiciary system, and the unpractical amount of time it takes for the legal process to deal with such matters, are among the factors fostering this dangerous environment for young women.

In effect, when girls are subject to external factors, dominant traditional attitudes, and laws that presume their inferiority, they are placed in adverse and unequal conditions as opposed to their male counterparts. While, whenever they have been left to their own initiative they have demonstrated their abilities and have clearly shown their will in opposing prejudice and challenging inequality.